So, you’ve done your research and decided that a hamster is the pet for you! Awesome! What’s step two? Finding the best hamster cage for your new buddy, of course.
Here’s the thing, though...
That’s easier said than done.
There are tons of different hamster cages out there, of all shapes and sizes. Lots of them come with colorful tubes and fun designs, but unfortunately, that doesn’t necessarily mean they’ll make a great home for your hammie.
In fact, very few hamster cages sold in USA pet stores are actually suitable for a hamster.
But don’t worry.
We’ve done the work for you, sorting through all the options to bring you only the top ten hamster cages we could find.
We’ll walk you through all the tips and tricks we learned in our research so that you know exactly what you’re looking for in a hamster habitat!
Research You Can Trust
We know how important it is that your hamster has a happy and healthy home, so you can bet we’ve done our research.
How, you ask?
Well, first we consulted expert advice from well-respected animal welfare organizations, and gathered opinions and experiences from real customers. Next, we dug deep into the specifications of every single product you see here on our list, weighing out all the pros and cons to determine which came out on top.
Why do all this research?
So that we can bring you real, unbiased reviews to help you make the best choice possible for you and your hamster!
Top 10 Hamster Cages: Give Your Furry Friend the Perfect Home
We’ll give you three guesses to figure out why this one made the top of our list.
Yep, it’s the incredible amount of space!
We love this cage because it’s a perfect fit for any type of hamster, and while it does have a sweet upper level for your ham to hang out on and look down upon the common folk, it doesn’t go crazy on the accessories.
That means plenty of room for a Syrian-sized wheel or hamster playground equipment (yeah, that’s a thing)!
And when it’s time to clean the cage?
Just detach the base and dump the dirty bedding in the trash. Easy as that.
But, um, make sure to take your hamster out of there first.
All in all, we think the Prevue Pet Products Universal Small Animal Home is a sturdy, spacious choice that’ll make any ham happy as a clam.
(Get it? Ham. Clam. Rhyming.
Listen, we take what we can get.)
Features:
- Ramp and upper level
- Deep tub so that bedding stays in the cage
- Two separate entry doors
- Dimensions: 32 ½ x 19 x 17 ½ inches
- Weight: 14 lbs
Spacious and simple
Sturdy construction
Perfect size for any hamster
Doesn’t include accessories
Some customers said it was difficult to take apart
Or maybe a castle.
Or, okay, like a mansion plus fancy garden grounds. Like with shrubbery trimmed into animal shapes and statues and a giant fountain. That sort of thing.
The point is, it’s really, really big.
The Midwest Critter Nation Double Unit with Stand is made to comfortably house rats, ferrets, and chinchillas, so you can bet it’s going to be perfect for your Syrian hamster.
Yes, specifically for a Syrian hamster.
Why’s that?
Because the space between the cage bars here is wide enough that a dwarf hamster would easily escape right through them.
So unless you want hamster heartbreak on your hands, definitely don’t get this cage for the little guys. We’d even caution against using it for a baby Syrian hamster, just in case.
For a fully-grown Syrian, though, it’ll be the home of their dreams.
This cage is made of solid, sturdy metal, with a ramp that leads up to a secure second level.
We really can’t stress enough how wowed we were by the size of this thing. There’s so much room that you could stuff it full of accessories and fit a giant wheel for even the biggest ham around, and you’d still have plenty of floorspace.
We also really liked that it’s elevated on a stand, so you have all this space below the cage to keep food, treats, and bedding. Everything neat and tidy in one spot.
The Midwest Critter Nation Double Unit with Stand comes with a one-year manufacturer's warranty for any defects.
Features:
- Wheeled base so you can easily move it if you need to
- Plenty of space below the cage for storage
- Double doors for easy access and cleaning
- Dimensions: 36 x 25 x 38.5 inches
- Weight: 59 pounds
You pretty much can’t go bigger
Sturdy construction means it’s built to last
Ramp and upper level to add extra floor space for toys and accessories
Not secure for dwarf hamsters
You’ll need to be sure you have the space for it
On the pricier side
If you’re looking for your basic, bare-bones hamster cage that’s easy on the wallet...
Look no further.
Let’s be real: the Ware Chew Proof 25 inch Critter Cage isn’t anything super stunning when it comes to construction, and you’re not going to find any accessories, or tubes, or ramps.
Or shining lights or music or sparkles. Unlike an ABBA-based musical, this cage is pretty basic and no-frills.
And we think that’s awesome.
This cage is sturdy, simple, and just spacious enough for a Syrian hamster. It’s not as big as some of the cages on our list, but you do have plenty of room to put in a wheel and toys. And the metal bars offer some great ventilation, unlike some plastic cages.
But right there’s the catch.
The space between those bars is just a bit too wide to securely house dwarf hamsters, so this one’s not suitable for the little guys.
Otherwise?
We found this cage to be a great budget-friendly option.
Features:
- Chew-proof wire bars
- Large side door for easy access
- Easy to put together
- Very breathable design
- Metal bottom is sturdier than the usual plastic
- Dimensions: 12.5 x 25 x 12.5 inches
- Weight: 6.5 pounds
Good-sized starter cage
Simple design that you can customize
Super easy to clean
Budget-friendly
Bar spacing is too wide for a dwarf hamster
Doesn’t include any accessories or ramps
The name doesn’t lie — the Lixit Animal Care Hamster Heaven Metro Cage is, well, heavenly!
(Cue angelic chorus.)
Why?
Let us count the ways...
First off, it’s huge.
Like, way bigger than most hamster cages you’ll find on the market. That might be because it comes all the way from Belgium, the land of waffles and bigger hamster cage size requirements.
Second of all, it’s got a TON of awesome accessories that are made specifically to make your hamster happier — not just to look neat.
We’re talking ramps! Tunnels! Extra levels! Hideouts! And even a legit loft, where your hamster can sit and contemplate the mysteries of the universe.
Plus, it even comes with a water bottle, two food dishes, and a wheel, so you’re basically all set except for the bedding and food.
...And the hamster. That part is important too.
So what’s the catch?
We said it was made in Belgium, right? Yeah. Quality materials plus overseas shipping costs equal a pricier cage. So while this one tops our list as far as hamster happiness goes, it’s also one of the costliest options out there.
However, we do want to note that you will save money on buying separate accessories with this cage, so that’s definitely something to consider.
Features:
- Slides, tunnels, and hideouts for a fun and varied environment
- Detachable base for cleaning
- Plenty of space
- Dimensions: 31.5 x 20 x 20 inches
- Weight: 12.17 pounds
Roomy enough for a Syrian or dwarf hamster to live comfortably
Comes with all the accessories you need
High-quality materials
On the pricier side
Not too much room to add your own accessories
When it comes to design, the Ferplast Favola cage wins major points.
While it comes along with an upper level, it’s still simple and easy to take apart, with just enough accessories to entertain your hammie. It includes a water bottle, food tray, hideout, wheel, and even a “connection cap” so you can add on tunnels (although you’ll need to buy those separately).
The upper level may look like wire mesh in the photos, but it’s actually solid so that little hamster paws don’t get caught, and we were impressed by how sturdy it was.
We also love the fact that the base is essentially just a really deep plastic tub. And not just because it makes cleaning easy. It’s the perfect depth to let your hamster have fun burrowing and tunneling, and it’s transparent so that you can have fun watching him go.
Here’s the thing, though.
This really isn’t the greatest choice for a Syrian hamster. It’s just too small. One customer said she uses it for her senior Syrian who’s less active, and we feel confident saying it’s a good choice in that case.
But it doesn’t really make the cut for a young and healthy Syrian hammie.
And even if you did get this cage for a Syrian hamster, you’d need to replace that built-in wheel. The wheel size that a Syrian needs — at least 8 inches in diameter — will take up more space in the cage, so it’s not the best set up you could go for.
But for dwarf hamsters?
We’d say it’s a solid choice.
Features:
- Built-in wheel, hideout, food tray, and water bottle
- Second level for hamsters to explore
- Deep tub for digging and burrowing
- Dimensions: 23.6 x 14.4 x 11.8 inches
- Weight: 11.8 pounds
Easy to clean
You can expand the space by adding on tubes and accessories
Clear tub means you can enjoy watching your hamster play
Too cramped for a Syrian hamster
Only one door on the top of the cage
Is your hamster a tiny wannabe mountain climber?
Then he’ll love this cage.
And it’s definitely made to be accessible to your average hamster, so no worries about too-steep ramps.
The Rosewood Pico XL also has a built-in water bottle, food dish, hideout, and wheel, so you don’t need to worry about any of the furnishings before you bring your hamster home.
And we gotta say, we love the rainbow of colors. It’s not every day you can get a hamster cage in hot pink.
Now for the bad news.
This is another cage that’s just not really ideal for a Syrian hamster because of the size. We do think it would make an awesome home for a dwarf hamster (or even a pair of them!).
And we don’t recommend this cage for older hamsters.
All of those levels are pretty cool for a younger hamster, but your fluffy senior citizen might have trouble climbing up the ramps. Frankly, we’d be worried about an older hamster falling and hurting himself.
Honestly, if you have any doubt whatsoever that your hamster can’t handle the ramps, this is not the cage for you.
Either way, we recommend watching your hamster carefully to be sure he’s climbing up and down with ease, and adjust the ramps if you need to. Just to be extra safe.
Features:
- Six levels of climbing
- Built-in accessories
- Detachable base
- Dimensions: 14.2 x 19.7 x 17.7 inches
- Weight: 7.05 pounds
Lots of fun for adventurous hams
Comes in different colors
Sturdy plastic is easy to clean
Not much floor space
Not a good choice for older hamsters
Wheel is too small for a Syrian
Want a cage that you can connect to pretty much any tube system on the planet?
Then the Ware Tube Time Small Animal House is the one for you.
This compact but sturdy plastic-and-wire cage has universally connectable tubes, meaning you can hook it up to pretty much any hamster tube-based habitat on the market.
Your hamster deserves to dabble in world domination, so we love that there’s potential here for unlimited expansion.
Like, imagine the possibilities. An entire room full of hamster tubing. A hamster metropolis. A hamster sovereign nation inside of your house! Who wouldn’t want that?
...That’s a thing people want, right?
No?
Well. Anyway.
So as for the cage on its own...
It’s your basic, all-accessories-included hamster habitat that’s probably better suited to dwarf hamsters than to Syrians.
Expand it into the metropolis we mentioned and then your Syrian will be happier and healthier, but otherwise, there’s just not much floor space for a bigger ham to enjoy.
Features:
- Universally connectable tubes
- Built-in wheel
- Deep tub for bedding
- Dimensions: 20.5 x 16.5 x 19.5 inches
- Weight: 6 pounds
Can be hooked up to other popular hamster tube systems, like CritterTrail and Habitrail
Extra level adds more space for toys and climbing
Everything snaps together securely
Too small on its own for a Syrian hamster
Not a lot of floor space for toys or accessories
It’s not every day you find a hamster cage with such a unique design, but novelty isn’t everything.
So let’s get to the facts...
So no worries about any slips or mishaps.
And talk about visibility! It’s super easy to watch your hamster run and play through the clear plastic panel up top, or even the bars below.
We also appreciated the fact that there’s a handy little top door to easily reach in and feed your hamster.
And although everything comes apart for cleaning, it all fits back together securely enough that we weren’t worried about any escape attempts.
Here’s what we’re not so crazy about...
Those dimensions just don’t cut it for a Syrian hamster.
Frankly, we think a Syrian deserves more room to roam, and a bigger wheel to boot.
But for a dwarf hamster, this cage will totally live up to the “awesome” part of its name.
Features:
- Built-in wheel, cubby, ramps, tubes, and other accessories
- Vertical play space
- Removable front panel for easy cleaning
- Dimensions: 18.1 x 11.6 x 21.3 inches
- Weight: 6.1 pounds
Easy to watch your hamster play
Cute and unique design
Fun playground for a dwarf hamster
Too small for Syrians
Some customers found it difficult to put together
The Ferplast White is a smaller cage than their Favola model, but it has a bunch of the same features.
Built-in accessories, for example, and a design that makes it easy to take the cage apart as needed.
So why didn’t it make the top of our list?
It’s the whole “smaller” part.
Because of its size, we don’t recommend investing in this one unless you’re attaching it to another unit so there’s more floorspace.
And even then, some customers said that their Syrian hamsters were just too big for the tubes included with this cage.
So that’s something to consider, especially if your hamster is on the chubby side.
With those things in mind...
This cage is definitely a decent base to start with for a dwarf hamster. Energetic hams will enjoy exploring the tubes and climbing up to the upper level with its plastic, chew-proof hideout.
We also felt that the tubing was secure, and we really liked that it’s transparent, so you can easily see if anything needs to be cleaned.
For the dwarf hamster owner who wants to build a totally tubular hamster village, we say go for it.
Features:
- Comes with all the accessories you need
- Can be attached to other Ferplast cage systems
- Bedding tray detaches for cleaning
- Dimensions: 18.1 x 11.6 x 14.8 inches
- Weight: 6 pounds
Tubes and an extra level add environmental enrichment
Great visibility so you can enjoy watching your hamster
Easy to put together
Not big enough for a Syrian
he bedding tray isn’t very deep
Thin plastic base might be tempting for heavy chewers
If you’ve spent even five minutes searching for a hamster cage, chances are you’ve happened upon some sort of Habitrail habitat.
This brand is well-known for their sleek and modern designs, with all sorts of tubes and crazy configurations to make your hamster look like he has his very own futuristic space station.
So why is this one on the bottom of our list?
Mainly because of its size.
But there’s a fix for that.
Just connect it to a few other Habitrail products, and now we’re talkin’!
The OVO Loft really does make for the perfect homebase to connect to other Habitrail items, so your hamster can be the reigning monarch of their very own Habitrail kingdom.
As for the Loft itself?
It’s a solid starter habitat.
We liked the fact that it has an extra deep tub, so you can add enough bedding for your hamster to happily burrow through. Plus, the built-in wheel is nice and quiet (although you’ll need to get a bigger one for a Syrian hamster).
Customers who had experience with other Habitrail products said this one was definitely one of the easiest to clean. And at only two pounds, we found that it was super easy to lift and move around as needed.
As for the included, chewable cardboard maze?
Adorable. We loved it, and we think your ham will too. We don’t think it will last hours like they suggest on the box, but still, it’s a cute touch.
So, ultimately, here’s the verdict.
If you’re not willing to invest in the accessories, this cage probably isn’t the one for you.
But...
We’d wholeheartedly recommend the Habitrail OVO Loft as an awesome starter piece to anybody who’s looking to set up a really snazzy Habitrail hamster playground.
Features:
- Includes wheel, water bottle, feeding bowl, and cardboard maze
- Built to be sturdy and escape-proof
- Deep tub for burrowing
- Dimensions: 13 x 20 x 11 inches
- Weight: 2 pounds
Biggest Habitrail cage you can get
Makes for a great starter if you’re building a Habitrail hamster kingdom
Light and easy to move and clean
Too small for a Syrian without additional Habitrail products
Not as much ventilation as a wire cage
Some hamster owners said the water bottle was finicky
How to Choose the Best Hamster Cage
So, when it comes to choosing a hamster cage, the most important thing to look for is space, space, and more space.
And more space.
A little more…
Nope, more than that.
Why so much space for such a tiny creature?
Because nobody likes living their whole life in a cramped box, and your furry friend is no exception. The ASPCA recommends a ten-gallon aquarium tank as the minimum cage size for any type of hamster, which measures 20 x 10 x 12 inches.
But not everybody agrees on that. Some hamster experts say that those dimensions are too small even for dwarf hamsters. They recommend at least 360 square inches of floorspace for Syrian hamsters and 288 square inches for dwarf hamsters.
So basically, if you can go bigger…
You definitely should.
The thing is that hamsters, despite their size, are high-energy animals. In the wild, they can spend all night running and burrowing and generally exercising their little hamster hearts out.
Even though they’re little, they are fierce and they need lots of room to run and play.
House Hunters: Hamster Edition
Aside from size, there are a bunch of other factors that you’ve got to consider when you’re hunting down the perfect hamster habitat.
First and foremost:
Which Type of Hamster Are You Housing?
Did you know that there are actually five separate species of hamster?
Yep! Not just type, but species!
Four of these species — the Russian Winter White dwarf, Campbell dwarf, Chinese, and Roborovski hamster — are extra super tiny.
So, naturally, they need less space.
But when you think ‘hamster,’ chances are the image that first comes to mind (if it’s not Hamtaro) is the Syrian hamster.
These guys are the biggest type of hamster around, at about six inches long. They come in all different colors and coat lengths, and sometimes you’ll see them labeled in pet stores as “teddy bear” or “black bear” hamsters depending on their coloring.
Because they’re a bit bigger, they can be easier to handle, and this can make them a better choice for kids than the speedier, sneakier dwarf varieties.
Of course, each of these hamster species has their pros and cons, and it’s up to you to decide which one is the best fit for you.
But remember, if you’re getting a Syrian hamster, you’ve got to be prepared to invest in a bigger cage.
Bar Space
No, not that kind of bar. (Sorry!)
Although that would be adorable. A hamster bar. With little teeny tiny drinks — non-alcoholic, of course — and hamster-sized shot glasses and bar stools and…
Ahem. Sorry, we got carried away.
So, bar space! We’re talking here about the space between the bars of your hamster’s cage. This is important for one simple reason:
Hamsters are expert escape artists.
Not all of them, but a lot of them, and especially Syrians.
It’s like there’s something in their tiny hamster hearts that tells them they must go onward and explore faraway lands, all Disney-movie-style.
But you really, really don’t want your hamster to find a whole new world outside of her cage, where she could get hurt or worse.
So it’s important to be sure you’re getting a secure cage.
That means no more than a half inch of space between the bars — and even less for dwarf hamsters. For these tiniest of tiny friends, we’d recommend sticking with no more than around a quarter inch of space between cage bars, depending on the individual hamster.
As a rule of thumb, if they can get their head through something, the rest of them will soon follow.
And then you’ll have to go hunting for a lost hamster somewhere in the walls of your house. Nobody wants that.
Materials
Plastic, glass, wire, wood — hamster cages come in all sorts of creative designs. When you’re looking at the material the cage is made out of, you should keep in mind a couple of things…
- How easy is it to clean?
Lots of cages come with detachable tubs on the bottom so you can just dump the bedding out into the trash, which makes life a lot simpler. Other cages have all sorts of tubes and ramps and whatnot that you’re going to have to figure out how to safely sanitize. Preferably without having to take the whole thing to pieces every single time. Because that gets old fast.
- Is it chew-proof?
Wooden cages can look beautiful, but many a hamster has chewed a hole right through the wood and made a grand escape. Make sure that any cage you buy is accounting for the fact that hamsters like to chew. A lot.
Accessories
Are you looking for the perfect ready-made hamster playground?
Or do you want a simple, spacious cage that has room for you to do your own interior decorating?
You’ll find plenty of fully-furnished cages with wheels, water bottles, food bowls, ramps, tunnels, and more. These are great if you want to just set the cage up and have everything ready to go from the start.
But if you’d rather have something you can easily change up and modify, look for a cage that puts the emphasis on wide open spaces. This way you can add and remove things without any finagling.
Changing up your hamster’s environment from time to time can make life more fun and interesting for him…and for you, too!
Plus, this way you can redesign the entire cage on a whim to make it look like outer space.
Seriously, hamster cage themes are a thing, and they are amazing
Top Ten Happenin’ Hamster Cage Reviews
THE WINNERS
Furnishing Your Hamster’s Home
Once you’ve got your cage, it’s time to put all those hours you’ve spent watching HGTV interior decorating shows to good use.
Researchers have found that hamsters who live in more comfortable, enriching environments actually are more likely to have an optimistic outlook in life.
Makes sense, right?
You’d probably feel pretty positive about your life too if you had a home full of awesome stuff.
So if you want your hamster to go through life seeing the water bottle half-full, there are a few things you’ll need to help him feel right at home…
Bedding
When you’re looking for hamster bedding, softer is better. Plenty of hamster owners swear by recycled paper beddings like Carefresh, whereas others stick with plain old aspen shavings, which are a bit cheaper.
If you’re really in a pinch, plain shredded paper (not newspaper!) also works just fine as a temporary bedding, with one big downside: it gets a lot smellier…a lot faster.
Trust us on this.
If you want to change things up a little, try mixing different beddings together. Most hamsters will pick a particular corner of their cage as the designated restroom, so you can try putting more absorbent bedding in that corner.
And here’s a bedding-related tip: Although cotton fluff is sold as “nesting material” for hamsters, it’s actually very dangerous for them. They can easily get their legs tangled up and injured. If you want to give your hamster some soft and safe nesting material, all you have to do is shred up some plain, unscented tissues.
Just remember: never buy cedar or pine shavings for your hamster or any other small animal. The aromatic oils in these beddings are dangerous for tiny fluffy creatures and can cause respiratory issues.
For the same reason, stay away from scented beddings. The best way to keep your hamster’s cage smelling clean is to…
Wait for it…
Clean it regularly.
Yeah, we know. Responsibility stinks.
But not as much as a dirty hamster cage.
Wheels
A good wheel isn’t just a fun accessory.
It’s absolutely necessary for your hamster’s health — and for your sanity. Hamsters can run over five miles a night on their wheels, and if they don’t get that energy out running, they’ll find other ways.
Like hatching an escape plan, for example.
Or rattling their cage bars at midnight when you’ve got to be up at six in the morning.
So if you want your hamster to be fit and happy and not escaping into the air ducts, you’re going to want to invest in a good wheel.
What makes a good wheel?
Well, there are three main things you need to consider when you’re wheel-shopping: size, material, and noise level.
That last one’s especially important if your hamster lives in your bedroom. These guys can and will run all night long, and if the wheel’s squeaking or thumping against the floor of the cage while you’re trying to get your beauty sleep, then you’re going to be cursing the name of your poor hamster.
As for the material of the wheel, there are a lot of wire wheels out there in pet stores, but they’re actually not so great for tiny hamster feet (or even stubby hamster tails). Those little paws can easily get caught in metal rungs or irritated by wire mesh, so we’d suggest steering clear of anything metal.
Instead, look for sturdy, solid plastic or wooden wheels, and make sure they’re big enough that your hamster isn’t rounding his back when he runs. He should be able to run at full speed without hunching at all, just like he would run across the ground in the wild.
For Syrian hamsters, that means a wheel that’s at least 8 inches in diameter, and for dwarf hamsters, around 6.5 inches will do.
Lots of cages have “built-in” wheels, but very few of them are actually big enough for a fully grown Syrian hamster.
Toys
Toys don’t just make your hamster’s cage look cool — they provide super important stimulation for your furry friend so that he’s not rattling the bars of his cage or generally being a fluffy force of destruction.
There are lots of adorable hamster toys you can buy, from plastic playgrounds to wooden castles, to make life more interesting for your hammie.
You can also go the DIY route, turning toilet paper rolls and tissue boxes into hamster adventure zones.
No matter which way you go, make sure the toys are non-toxic and safe to chew because hamsters will get their chompers into just about anything.
Hideouts
Hamsters are nocturnal, so during the day, they appreciate a nice, cozy hideout where they can get their beauty rest!
You can find wooden chew-friendly hideouts, cute plastic igloos, and even natural looking “tree stumps” like this one.
Or you can use an old cardboard box, really. It just has to be something chew-safe and cozy for them to burrow underneath.
Taking Your Hamster Cage Knowledge to the Next Level
So, now you’ve learned all there is to know about choosing a hamster cage!
You know the best hamster cage is the biggest cage.
You know how to furnish your new cage to make your hamster happy and healthy.
And you know just where to keep it.
Congratulations!
You’re well on your way to becoming an extra awesome hamster owner.
So why not take a celebratory lap in this human-sized hamster ball?
Or go crazy and start your next cute, fluffy animal, adventure off by researching cages for your future guinea pig!
You know. So you can really get to know the world from your hamster’s point of view.
Prevue Pet Products 528 Universal Small Animal Home
Wondering how to choose the best hamster cage for your new furry friend? Let us walk you through everything you need to know to house a happy hamster!
Show MeMidwest Critter Nation Double Unit with Stand
Wondering how to choose the best hamster cage for your new furry friend? Let us walk you through everything you need to know to house a happy hamster!
Show MeWare Chew Proof 25 inch Critter Cage
Wondering how to choose the best hamster cage for your new furry friend? Let us walk you through everything you need to know to house a happy hamster!
Show MeFrequently asked questions
Where should I place my hamster’s cage?
Somewhere quiet that isn’t too hot or cold (hamsters, like people, prefer temperatures of 65 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit), without any drafts or direct light.
If the sound of the wheel is going to keep you up at night, we’d recommend keeping your hamster somewhere other than the bedroom.
How often should I clean the cage?
Spot-cleaning once a day, and doing a full cleaning (where you change out aaaalll the bedding) every week should be just fine. Make sure to give your hamster fresh water every day, though, even if the water bottle isn’t empty yet.